Ethereum co-founder Vitalik Buterin said SNARKs are the most likely among major cryptographic technologies to achieve less than 10x computational cost overhead by the end of this decade. Buterin estimated a 33% probability that SNARKs, Fully Homomorphic Encryption and Indistinguishability Obfuscation could eventually reduce overhead to “1+ε” for large-scale real-world computation. He also assigned a 60% probability that all three technologies will reach below 10x overhead, measured by energy costs plus amortized computational costs. He noted that dedicated hash functions and some large language model inference workloads have already reached this level, while emphasizing that his assessment is a non-consensus personal view.