Estimates of Bitcoin’s on-chain transfer value can vary by up to six times depending on the measurement method, primarily based on whether change outputs and other amounts returned to the sender are included, according to a Bank for International Settlements working paper. The study analyzed approximately 100 billion on-chain records from Bitcoin, Ethereum, and TRON. It found that traditional market capitalization once reached four times realized capitalization, while about 54 million of Ethereum’s roughly 67.5 million active contracts could not be classified. The researchers said on-chain metrics should be treated as noisy approximations rather than direct measures of economic activity.